Introduction

India, with 18% of the global population but only 4% of the world's freshwater resources (MoJS, 2023), faces acute hydrological stress. Agriculture accounts for nearly 80–85% of freshwater withdrawals, while industrial and urban demands continue to escalate (CWC, 2021). Groundwater, which sustains 60% of irrigation and 85% of domestic water supply (NITI Aayog, 2019), is being extracted at unsustainable rates, making India the largest groundwater user globally. Climate change intensifies these pressures, as suggested by reports: